Today we will be looking at the definition and scope of stylistics which have been defined in different ways by various scholars. Different linguists have defined the discipline stylistics in various ways. Nils E Enkvist (1964) have defined stylistics as "the interpretation of literature in the light of linguist structure and its history." in Seboek, T.A ed. (1964) stylistics is defined as being "in some way dependent on linguistics since style cannot clearly be defined without reference grammar... The aim of stylistics is primarily classificatory." Roger Fowler (1975) defines it as something or a discipline that "emphasizes particularity, individuality, concreteness; It makes the individual work more recognizable, more discrete, its physiognomy more salient." The above definitions have been understood in what is today accepted as the definitions of stylistics by linguists. This say that stylistics is:

"a branch of linguistics which studies the feature of the distinctive uses or varieties of language in different situations. It tries to establish principles capable of accounting for the particular choices made by individuals and social groups in their use of language."

The Scope Of Stylistics :
            There are many styles that are open to stylistic investigation. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia says stylistics look at language of socialization, the production and reception of meaning, critical discourse analysis and literary criticism. Wikipedia continuing says:

Other features of stylistics include the use of dialogue, including regional accents and people's dialects, descriptive language, the use of grammar such as the active or passive voice, the distribution of sentence lengths, the use of particular language registers, etc.

General stylistics deals with the non-dialectical varieties found within the language. In other words, it deals with situational or contextual use of language, that is, variation according to use. It also includes variation of language according to field of discourse; variation according to mode of discourse and finally, variation according to style of discourse (Ike,2005).

Literary stylistics, on the other hand, deals with language use in literature; that is, variations characteristics of literature as a genre and of the style of individual authors that have made their mark in literature. often you hear people talk about the style of Shakespeare, Milton, Achebe, Soyinka etc.

Stylo-stylistics deals with the qualification of stylistic patterns. It studies the statistical structure of literary texts, often using computers.

Phonostylistics studies is the expressive or aesthetic function of sounds. 

Style is a difficult concept to define accurately because of the different views people have about it. There are linguist that believe the concept of style derives from the distinction made between "langue" and "parole" by Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure. According to him, "Langue is the code or system of rules common to the users of a langue; parole, on the other hand, is the particular selections from the system that individuals make on any one occasion"like the choice people make in conversation, official communication or legal procedure. Style pertains to parole and so it essentially the way a speaker or writer selects and employs his words, phrases, and sentences to achieve his desired effect in any given context.

        Crystal (1997:66) sees style as one of the thorniest concepts. He says, "to Samuel Wesley, it was the dress of thought; to Jonathan Swift, it was the proper words in proper places; to W.B Yeats, it was the high breeding in words and argument." According to him, the definition could be considered "adinfinitum." of the many definitions of style, Crystal now makes two broad classifications- the evaluative and the descriptive. The evaluative meaning of style sees style as implying a degree of excellence like the good style of conventional criticism in literature. The second meaning sees style as "a set of distinctive that characteristics that identify objects, persons, periods or places." He says, "in this sense we talk of Shakespearean style...and all the variations in expression that relate to psychological or social states."

          Enkvist (1964:19), even before Crystal, came up with his own classifications of the many senses of style. He looked at various definitions of style like the following:

1. style as set of individual characteristics
2. style as set of collective characteristics
3. style as deviations from a norm
4. style as those linguistic entities that are suitable in terms of wider spans of text than the sentence, etc.

Enkvist discovered that some of the foregoing definitions overlapped while some disqualified others. Base on the features common to some of them, he came up with the following classification -

1. definitions base on the point of view of the writer
2. definitions that deal with characteristics of text itself, attempting analysis entirely in terms of objective investigations of textual features
3. definitions based on the impressions of the reader.

Enkvist stresses that an adequate definition of style should contain aspects of the various classifications taking note of the writer, his choice of words, the effect on the reader and what distinguishes the text from other texts. He tries to achieve the above in his definition of style as "the aggregate of the contextual probabilities of its linguistic items."
He then goes on to explain that the significance of any linguistic item (phonological, morphological, lexical or syntactic) is in relation to other items in the contextual in which it appears.

        Winter (1962), another linguist says:

A  style may be said to be characterized by a pattern of recurrent selection from the inventory of optional features of a language. Specifically, this involves selection from the phonological, lexical, syntactic and semantic elements. It includes complete exclusion of an optional element and obligatory inclusion of a feature which is optional elsewhere. It also involves varying degrees of inclusion of a specific variant without complete features.

 From the above quotation, it is clear that Winter sees style as a matter of choice, just like linguist who say that style pertains to parole. Style as a matter of choice can also be discerned in Crystal's classification of style as a "set of distinctive characteristics that identify objects, persons, periods or places...In this sense we talk of Shakespearean style..."This view also comes out of Enkvist's definition of style as "the aggregate of the contextual probabilities  of its linguistic items." Close  to this element of choice in dicussions about style is that of style as deviation from the standard usage,

History of  English
The English language which is used today as a lingua – franca al over Nigeria and other Nations, developed out of Germanic dialect  that were brought to Britain during the course of the  5th and  6th centuries by Angles. The Saxon and the Jutes.  Until the 16000s however, English  remained a language  spoken  by relatively small number of people adn was confined  geographical to the Island of Britain.
The history of English language is divided  into three broad period: old English period (450-  1150) middle English period (1150 – 1500) and modern English period (1500 to date ).

Old English Period  
Old  English is the name used to designate  the language which  the  three Germanic tribes spoke after they settled in the English island.  He  Germanic tribes, the Angles (English ) The Saxons and the Jutes.  The Anges came from modern Demark and settled in North and central English. The land soon got its name from Engla- land and its language was to be Englisc. The Saxons came from modern West Germany, now was to be Englisc. The Saxons came from modern  West Germany,  now  Germany and settled  I n Southern part of the Island. The Jutes came from Jutland and the North  sea Coast around the mouth  of the river Rhine on t heir own part, occupied the South  -Eastern country of  Kent.

The tribes  started getting along  through inter-marriage etc. the  Angles and Saxon were however  the most numerous and persistent perhaps this accounts for the name  Aengle-land   Engle- land and today England. In its grammar, old English  resembled Latin. The nouns and adjectives were inflected for four and sometimes five as the case may be.
Example of old English
Old English Present day
Cytel Pillow
Cycene Kitchen
Cupper Cup
Disc Dish
Bisceop Bishop
The days  of the  week  as we have them today are from these Anglo-Saxon gods.
God of war wooden   Wednesday
God of Thunder Thunor or Thor   Thursday
The  northern venus Frig Friday
The minor war – god   tow Tuesday
A down goddess Eaustra Easter

Phonology is the scientific study of the sound of a particular language with reference to the functions of the sounds in the generation of meaning. Phonology is concerned with the study of speech sounds and it consists of two related discipline, which are phonetics and phonology.
Basically, there are four recognizable phonological units in English, language. There are tone group, the foot, syllable and the phoneme. As non - native speakers, Nigerians have problems with their English at all levels of phonology as well as with Supra segments. The reason for those problems shall be explained after identifying most of the major problems with examples from three major ethnic groups ---- ibo, Yoruba and Hausa.

1.Tone Group: 
This occupies the highest position in the phonological units of English language usually it is made up of one or more feet. Christopherson P (2008) defines tone group as a speech consisting of a Single tone. It is the focus of information in the phonological units. Let us use this example from Christopherson (2006) all they do is to sit back and listen. These utterance could: be one tone group with a high head staring on "all" and a fall on "listen" in a rather slower speech performance we may have a division after "do" turning the utterance into two tone groups.

2. THE FOOT: the foot is made up of one or more syllables. The foot is a totally strange level in most Nigerian language, because it depends on the feature stress. Many of our language have the feature prominence and hot stress such that in most of our language. Each syllable is made prominent, Unlike in English where certain syllables of certain words are prominent in speech because of the degree of stress which they bear e.g. our content words. So many Nigeria speakers transfer this feature of their mother tongue into their English speech, thereby giving syllable which should normally not be prominent or loudly heard in speech it can be illustrate with the following examples: "The lecture ordered; walk out of my class" this sentence above could be two tone groups /The lecturer ordered / walk our of my class/ the first tone group /The lecturer ordered/. Has a primary stress on both `lecturer' and ordered". The first foot is "the lecturer". It contains four syllables, the second is "the lecturer" it contains four syllables, the second is ordered.

3. SYLLABLE: this serves as the basic structure for the organization of segmental unit into combinable patterns, Nigerians have problem at this level because most of our mother tongues have the open - syllable - structure. I.e. they always have a vowel following consonant, such that there are consonant clusters in many languages. Therefore the averages Nigerian, especially the Yoruba, tries to break down English consonant cluster to obey the open syllable structure rule in his mother tongue e.g. instead of , Bread we have Buredi, Milk we have Miliki .Then the Hausa instead of; People we have Fifle
The Ibo's on their part and probably the Hausa's often harmonize the vowels in their English word because Ibo Language for instance has a lot of vowels harmony ( as a phonological process) exhibits in the language.

Onoga (2009) believes that the success of the learning of any subject depends largely on the enthusiasm and resourcefulness of the teachers in organizing learning experiences, all of which is a function of teacher's attitudes towards the subject and the students.
Moreover, Adebayo (2008) is of the view that teachers should be held responsible fog' student performance in examinations either success or failure. This he said because it is the performance of the students in examination that will measure the teacher's level of efficiency.

In support of this, Amin (2009) who observes that the poor performance of students of examination is a communicative effect of the poor reading habit of teachers and the use of non trained or less qualified teachers many of whom he said do not prepare well for what they want to teach the pupil that is, they do not have adequate knowledge of the subject matter.
Griffit  etal (2008) are of the view that "no matter how carefully structured a new course  is and brilliant, the various educational media have to be used. The success or failure of any innovation ultimately depends on the reception and flexibility of the classroom teachers.
Okoson & Agoro (2006) in an interview conducted among some secondary school discovered that student put the blame of poor performance in examination on their teacher who is so remote when in class that they are afraid to ask questions and clarify they are where they are confused.

Method Of Teaching And Instructional Method Of Teaching
Owen et al  {2009) believe that student persistent in errors might be due to teacher-s- methodology, lack of or insufficient exposure to good and consistent model of new forms of pronunciation, lack of penalty or reward ii. Form of communication failure, laziness or some inherent difficulties in the sound the new language which is transferred from the mother tongue.
Taking into consideration the countless importance of the language. The fact that the English language is the Anglophone West African Second language (LZ) and consequently Nigeria Lingua Franca as well as the drastic rate at which oral English is falling (especially at our secondary school level). Also bearing in mind that "what is worth doing at all is worth doing well", the question of effective universal communication correct verbal pronunciation as well as fluency and eloquent speaking English language.

Instructional materials:
Adewonyon (2007) is of the opinion that instructional materials are instrument which facilitate teaching and learning and these assist the teachers as well as the students in the realization of educational objectives. Instructional materials enhance teacher's communication, stimulate learners interest widen their horizon, deepen their knowledge, and diversify their methods and saves time. It makes education more purposeful, individualized and concrete.

In a learned language, interference means a negative effect. It is erroneously believed that mother tongue is the language that one comes in contact with in life.
According to Afolayan (2009) mother tongue is a language in which a person has the greatest linguistic facility, the user of a mother tongue identifies his native culture in the learning language which maybe regarded as foreign language interference comes up as a result of inconsistencies in the target language itself.

ORTHOGRAPHIC IN-CONSISTENCE
The English orthography is not consistent; a sound in the language may be realized by different spelling Examples:
(a) /G/
Spelt "t" as in additional correction Spelt "ss" as in mission, passion
Spelt "sh" as in shake, she.
Spelt "sc" as in schedule, conscious
Spelt "s" as in Asian
Spelt "ch" as in machine
(b) /F/
Spelt "f' as in fact, frame
Spelt "ff' as in off, offend
Spelt "gh" as in cough, laugh
Spelt "ph" as in physics
(a) and (b) are example of how individual phonemic sounds assume different spellings in English words the next examples is the reverse of.
Examples (a) and (b) because it is the instance of how a single alphabet in English is pronounced differently in many different words in the language.
(c)   “S”
Pronounced /s/ as in search, Cuts, Seize
 Pronounced /C/ as In Asian
Pronounced /z/ as in dogs, girls
 Pronounced /3/ as in Measure, Treasure

(d) Some letter is even silent in some English words. Example "b" is silent in Comb, Bomb, and "gh" is silent in daughter. All these may result into linguistic interferences.

 Inter Lingual Interference
This comes about as a result of differences in the linguistics system of two Languages in contact. There would be interlingual interference at all level of language analysis i.e. at all level of phonology lexis, syntax and even semantics, most examples of interference will be taken from English/Yoruba language. According to Weinreich (2006) at the phonemic level of interference four basic types can be discerned thus:
i. Under - Differentiation
ii. Over - Differentiation:
iii. Re - Interpretation of Phoneme
 iv. Actual Phone Substitution .
Under - Differentiation:
Is a case where two or more sounds whose counterparts are not distinguished in the primary system are confused. In the English consonant sound, there are the voiceless palato alveolar fricative /G/ as well as the voiceless alveolar fricative /s/.These two sound of English are distinct sounds in the language. They could therefore form minimal pairs in English as we have in "ship" "sip", "she", "see"
In some dialects of Yoruba however e.g (Ogbomoso) there is the absence of the voiceless palato alveolar fricative /G/. The ogbomoso learner or even speaker of English may therefore have a problem differentiating between the two consonant sound /s/ and /G/in English.
i. Under - Differentiating may often involve more than two sounds in a language. The Yoruba learner of the English language for instance may under - differentiate up to four English vowels, most Yoruba speakers of English collapse the English vowel /3:/, /a/, /D/ and /^/ into one Yoruba vowel /O/.
This is illustrated in the example below
 /wod/ Instead of the RP /w3: d/ for ward
/wod/ Instead of the RP /w:): d / for ward
/bon/ Instead of the RP /b:) : n / for born
/bon/ Instead of the RP /b3: d/ for cod
/kod/ Instead of the RP /kc: d / for cord
/bot/ Instead of the RP / b : t/ for but
/bot/ Instead of the RP / b:): t/ for bought
Thus, he does not distinguish minimal pairs in the language
ii. Over- Differentiation: is a situation where a speaker of language interprets a single phoneme as: two or more separate phoneme in a second language. In other words, he will pronounce a single phoneme in many different ways.
This point will be illustrated with English shuwa sound /a/ which the Yoruba speaker of English substitutes with the Yoruba vowel sounds: /a /, /o/,/I/,/e/,/u/ and /o/.
Examples are given below.
/ 2fod/ Instead of a RP /afo: d/ for Afford
/ Koroson/Instead of a RP /                / for Corruption
/matimatiks/ Instead of a RP/             / for Mathematics
/ Litretso/ Instead of a RP /              / for literature
/control/ Instead of a RP - /             / for control
It could be said from all examples that the replacement of the /    / sound in English by Yoruba vowel sounds is highly unpredictable
iii. Re- Interpretation of a phoneme is a case where the speaker of language "A" gives a sound in language "B" a different interpretation from that, in the language. For examples, aspiration is a marker distinct phoneme in Hindi. The Hindi speaker may therefore realize the aspiration and unaspirated stop as different and distinct phoneme in English.
iv. Actual Phoneme Substitution, as the name implies simply means substituting a phoneme in language "A" for another in language "B" The English language for instance has the voiceless dental fricative /O / which is absent in the Yoruba language. For this sound, therefore, the Yoruba speaker of English simply Substitutes, the voiceless alveolar plosive /t/, thus. The English word theme and thought are realized as /Tim/ and not /tot/ respectively. It is important to note that the interference of any of the four kinds discussed above can result into the obstruction meaning.

Being able to recognize symbols in the language and being able to put down feelings, emotions and messages using symbols are reading and writing. Today, the world is coming increasingly sophisticated that only the highly literate can make success out of it.
In other words, to be seen to be relevant to a modern world. The individual has to know how to read and write and it is the responsibility of the English teacher to impact these skills.

I. READING: Bright and Macgregoar (2008) asserts that reading is a receptive skill. It involves the ability of a learner to recognize and understand material that had been written down.
The essence of speaking skills is aimed at ensuring that the reader reads fluently and smoothly pronouncing the individual words correctly and getting the intonation patterns correctly.
Banjo in a foreword to Unoh's "Reading to Remember" defined reading as "a very precious tool to be used in cutting through the unyielding5 academic Jungle so as to have clear view".
Reading is useful because it entails many complicated processes such as extensive / intensive reading speed reference and study skill, the development etc of these could serve as tool".

A leaner must have had competence in a Language before he can begin to read. This competence may be extensive as in the case of the second Language learner. In both cases, the competence has been developed and is used extensively through the reception and production of Language in its spoken mode. These are two stages of reading. The early stage of reading involves the transfer of an already acquired competence into a different mode of performance. Since pupils are competent in the spoken language, what is expected of the teacher in the reading (either text, newspaper, any printed material) easily, quickly, and intelligently. It will be energy and time wasting after reading for two hours one cannot recall what one has read. Banjo says that reading like is listening involves a lot of mental processing for the reader to be able to grasp what the writer wants to pass across.

ii: WRITING:  Arsposs (2005). In her paper, `writing. A thinking process" says, "writing is much more than an orthographic symbolization of experience." It is purposeful because one does not write without an aim or objective. These experiences have to be organized such that they become meaningful to the leader. This process of learning to write is largely a process of learning to think clearly.

There is no hard and fast rule for teaching, writing other than teacher to teach the pupils how to construct sentences in the language.
To Davies, and Windowson, (2009), it would appear that the most promising way of teaching writing is first to develop in the learner an ability to recognize how written language communicate. This means that pupils knowledge of how to interpret a text, will help him represent graphically his feeling, so there is a direct link between how much one reads and how well one writes.

In order to learn or study English as a second language and be successful at it, the students must be assisted by the teacher to acquire the four language arts skills; namely,  speaking, listening , reading and writing. To achieve  this the teacher has to teach  using different method of teaching, by  varying his method of teaching assimilation will be visible.

Malinowski (1991) asserted that composition writing is a difficult skill to acquire, and recommended therefore that teachers must use a  variety of methods for teaching English language. Ellis and Tomlison (1980), indicated some basic  skills to be taught to learners  so that  they can write essay proficiently, such skills include, spelling, punctuation, linguistic skills and convention of style.
Reyner et al (2001:57) ascertained that many  good teachers are adaptive rather than rigid in their approach to teaching the students in learning English. Trifonoviteh (1981) indicated that a students is automatically placed at a disadvantage when he already has a language  of his own and he is asked to learn another language. The teacher  has a lot  to do inorder to make teaching and learning a success by using series  of method he can achieve this.

Bright and McGregor (1970), said that language skills  could be acquired  through practice. The students have to talk, read and write very well under the teacher’s guidance if they are to make  progress Galliher et al (1995) states that teachers must assume the role of “resource brokers” The implication of this is that teachers should become familiar with a variety of instructional  delivery methods, rather than rely on one “best way”.

In addition to the use of different teaching methods, Cleve (1992) and Oluikpe (1979) advocated the use of method such as guided controlled and free writing techniques  in essay writing., the goal of controlled expression is to instill in  the learners  or students the faculties  needed to produce clear piece of composition  free from all grammatical errors. This is because English grammar has it ‘s own set of complicated rules and regulations which makes it a tough language to conquer.

A good number of students struggle with these rules,  and cannot really understand many of these principles. To make matters worse, English itself is of  different varieties. This is why different  regions have their own English accent so if English is spoken in fifty different regions, it is likely that it is  spoken in fifty different ways. This explains why  it is difficult for students to understand  native English. Thus, there is a very clear gap to be bridged between  the  teacher  and the students before actual communication and education can be effective. This can be achieved through the use of different method of teaching. Teachers are not altering  their instructional practices  in spite of the coming of the new instructional technologies. In additionally, most teachers have depended on textbooks  and the chalkboards as media  for disseminating knowledge  a  the classroom. With the current practice by English  language teachers in senior secondary schools,  their  students are greatly deprived without access to modern instructional media.

School Learning Environment    
The  environment plays an important role in both physical and intellectual growth of the learners and this  affects most of the behavoural characterization shown in different persons.
Orisawayi (1985) indicated that the size of the class and  its setting act as constraints in the teachers  plan for the verbal  performance of the learners. According to him, a reasonable size of the class, which might facilitate verbal performance would  be between ten and twenty learners.
Also Aliji (1980),  indicated that the large size of the class discourages assignment, it is common in most of the secondary schools these days to have up to fifty students in a class. In this kind of situation, majority of the students are not allowed to express themselves.

Most students do not learn in environment that is conducive to effect learning many people uses the school’s premises as shortcut  to their destination. People often move through the paths and across the playing fields in many of the schools  thereby distracting the attention of the learners.      

In this section, we are going to understudy various distinguished Educationists who believe that for a child to have total education, the promotion of the use of indigenous language should be encouraged.
According to the international literacy institute:
                  In the classroom of many developing countries, a significant portion of children are either illiterate in their mother tongue or receive only a few years of mother tongue instruction before a second (usually international) language is learned/introduced as a medium of instruction. more and more children enter school with a multiplicity of languages and cultures, it is truly in the best interest of any nation to develop its children literacy skills using models, methods and practices that ensure success for all its children.

In view of this, G.Moody (1975) states that: ‘In traditional Nigerian society as have been said, culture was transmitted but today this responsibility has to a large extent developed in the school. The use of language is an important vehicle in transmitting culture. In Nigeria, every child is required to learn the language of the immediate environment and one of the three major Nigerian languages: Hausa, Yoruba, and Igbo (NPE 2004). Government takes the study of Nigerian language seriously because it recognizes the importance of language not only as a means of promoting social interaction and national cohesion but also as a means of preserving culture.

Nigerian languages are full of proverbs and idiomatic expressions that are peculiar to the respective ethnic groups which speak them. When children read language books or undertake comprehension exercises in schools, they learn the idiom and expressions and the cultural images attached to words. It is very pertinent to note that it is during the secondary level that the child appreciates cultural transmissions. It is also noteworthy that some modern literatures have incorporated elements of oral traditions, but most of it is based on models from western literature. The exploitation of form, heightening of style and descriptive function of the literature are clearly found in oral literary forms. Children imbibe indigenous culture through unconscious learning of native language, manners and attitudes towards others in the community and conscious or intentional imparting of the culture through reading and writing.

In view of this, Babs Fafunwa(1974), says that ‘education starts with the correct use language. The indigenous language is the child’s best access to education.’ Hence, our indigenous language can not be neglected in any sort because whether we like it or not, It is the link to the future of national development.
Our cultural values are what makes us different from the European world and if we say that we are independent then the values which are our directions and messages of hope should not be allowed to experience dearth. We do not have to experience language linguicide as experienced in Australia or other countries for us to begin to appreciate our cultural values.          
 

Cultural values have been categorized into two according to Odor (2002:):
a. Material cultural values
b. Non- material cultural  values
Material cultural values include all that the people of a particular society have created or developed for their own use and comfort and which they can be identified with. These include the acts and patterns of building houses, the fabrication of local tools or implements for farming, fishing, hunting and even excavation, the arts and crafts of the Benin, Yoruba, Hausa- Fulani, Igbo and Kanuri people and finally the different patterns of dressing amongst the people.
The Non- material cultural values predominantly include language, attitudinal values and beliefs, philosophy, literature and festival of the people.

Also, according to Aghaulu (1996:80), the non-material cultural refer to those aspects of human activities that are transmitted from generation through process of socialization. These have given rise to the old cultural values of modesty, integrity probity and highly prized scholarstic attainments (Abamba, 2005:22) high respect for constituted authorities and elders as well as human life, and respect for human dignity and integrity rather than money. There is a dire need to re-orientate our educational system towards the blending of creativity and pragmatism.
There are four ways by which cultural values are formed.
1. Environmental Adaptations
2. Historical factors  
3. Social and economic  evolution
4. Contact with other cultural values
In the Nigerian aspects, there are seven aspects of traditional education among the Yoruba people including development of later physical skills, respect for elders and peers, intellectual development, vocational development, community participation, development of ethical character and promotion of cultural heritage (Fafunwa, 1983).

The concept of culture can be linked to the customs and beliefs, art, music, literature, way of life and social organization of a particular group of people. In other words, it is associated with the beliefs and attitudes about something that people in a particular group or organization share, which are to a large  extent preserved in and transmitted through the language  they  interact with. Thus, the way of life of the people is intimately bound up with their language (Alagbe, 2007).
This means that language being the medium for communicating thoughts, emotions and exaltations, that is for effecting an understanding among men, has a role to play in preserving the charm, attractiveness, sanctity and building nature of cultural heritage in our society. In as much as culture binds people together, language binds people more closely together. This shows that culture cannot be effectively displayed without the instrumentality of language.

UNESCO (1983) in Odunsi (1994) notes that there is no foreign language that can adequately and effectively take the place of the indigenous  language  and to disregard the  indigenous language will tantamount to jeopardizing the mental development of the child. It is noted that the government has given serious attention to   the language issues in Nigeria.  The stand of the government is hinged on the fact that it realizes the role of indigenous languages in national integration and the promotion and preservation of culture. This  is the reason why in Europe, North America, Russia, Japan, China and other  developed countries, education of the child is done through the indigenous language  for primary, secondary  and university  education (Fafunwa 1983). Those nations recognize the importance of culture in teaching, as discussed by UNESCO (1951) thus:
It is axiomatic that the best medium of teaching a child is his mother tongue.  Psychologically, it is the system of meaningful sign that his mind work automatically for expression and understanding. Educationally, he learns more quickly through it that through an unfamiliar linguistic medium.
In spite of government efforts at promoting the indigenous languages in Nigerian, most of the students in the secondary school appear not interested in learning the languages (Awoniyi 1978 cited on Makinde 1999).

It is clear that some emotions and exaltations can only be evoked through the traditional language; otherwise such expressions would lose all its meanings when imparted in a foreign tongue. The truth is that nothing tends to broaden the mental out look of a man more than his understanding of his / her language and ability to express his / her cultures through it. For a better understanding of the Yoruba cultural values and her people in their environment, we shall adopt Grice (1975) cooperative principle to investigate the kinds of language used and how meaningful they are culturally.

Grice’s Co-operative principles 
The co-operatives principle (CP) popularized by Grice (1975) is said to be one of the famous theories of linguistic pragmatics. It is otherwise referred to as conversational implicatures. The principles subsume a number of maxims, which specify the conventions which participants in a conversation should ordinarily obey.
These four maxims are as follows:
1. Maxim of Quality: It has to do with the amount of information given by a speaker. That is,
a. Make your contribution as informative as is required
b. Do not make your contribution more informative than required.
2. Maxim of Quality: it has to do with giving a valuable information .That is,
a. Do not say what you believe is false.
b. Do not say that, of which you lack adequate evidence
3. Maxim of Relation: It has to do with making useful information to the people. That is, to be relevant.
4. Maxim of Manner: This maxim has an overall instruction of being perspicuous.
It is subdivided into the following.
a. Avoid ambiguity (more than one meaning)
b. Avoid obscurity (meaning less statement)
c. Being orderly.

In conclusion nothing tends to broaden the mental outlook of a man more than knowing his language and through it, understands the culture it represents.
The idea of struggling to preserve and cultivate the Yoruba language by the Yoruba’s is simply because the language has an emotional and a spiritual value for them, and by giving it up they would be sacrificing part of their birthright.

According to Wikipedia, an indigenous language also known as autochthonais language is a language that is native to a region and spoken by indigenous peoples but has been reduced to the status of a minority language. This language would be from a linguistically distinct community that has been settled in the area for many generations. Indigenous  language may not be national languages or may have fallen out of use, because  of language deaths  or linguicide caused by colonization where the  original language is replaced  by that  of the colonists.
When we say the word indigenous we mean something is belonging to a particular place rather than coming to it from somewhere else (native).

In Lagos state Secondary School, it has become a thing of joy for students to speak their indigenous language whereas they do not understand the cultural values involved. This is due to the fact that though the students can speak the Yoruba language, they do not understand the nitty – gritty involved in the language. This has caused a lot of disorder in our secondary schools. The subjects are just taught but not made mandatory or compulsory for promotion. This has caused a major decline in its real usage as only the vernacular Yoruba language is used.

This is better buttressed by Soneye’s (2002 :) assertion quoting Ngugi thus:
The first sure sign of self colonization is when one does not know enough of one’s own language meaning that one knows more of another people’s language (p 237).
Emeniyi (2006) refers to the indigenous language state in our secondary schools as zero bilingualism which means a situation where an individual can neither speak his/ her mother tongue, because he/she is not permitted to use it in school, nor communicate effectively in English, since there are few qualified language teachers to teach it.

With this state, the students just speak the language but do not learn them well that is, the folktales, stories, poetry, Oriki, Ewi, chant songs, etc because there is no motivation of any such i.e. there are no benefits as in if a child does not pass the Yoruba language in the WASSCE, NECO or even JAMB, the child can still get promoted into the tertiary institution or even the next higher class.
Adejare (2009), states that when a child leaves school, theoretically, the child does not encounter the language again till the next time the Yoruba language is on the time table. Most times, the Yoruba language is only taught once in a week and it occurs most times only for a period of forty- five (45) minutes. This is very absurd compared to the number of hours given to the foreign language (English language) in a week. How then can we promote our cultural values?
We would take a closer look at some sub-topics that explain better the indigenous language (Yoruba). They are;
a. Language loss
b. Language acquisition
c. Language attrition

Language Loss
 Language loss is not affected merely by attitudes about language parse. A lot of people have the perspective that the indigenous language spoken would not put bread on their tables, so why should they worry about preserving them.  This is the bedrock of language loss in the Nigerian educational system.
It has become normality that while the English language have taken the priority of being the compulsory subject, the indigenous languages are treated as electives despite the fact that some of the local languages have very rich vocabulary even for the study of services. In the light of this some eminent scholars. Like Uzochukwu (2003) and Iwuchukwu (2003) comment as follows:

There has never been dearth of policies in the attempt to revive interest in Nigerian languages, as the government, scholars, and other stake-holders are fully aware of the potentialities of Nigerian languages in the learning process and as an agent for boasting our National awareness. What is lacking is the will to back up these policies with actions and the ability of changing the apathy of Nigerians to their languages. The national policy on education, for instance stipulates that a child should be taught in the mother tongue in the early years of his education, as is the case in other parts o f the world (p. 1).
Iwuchukwu (2003):

Two of the five main national goals of Nigeria, upon which the national policy on education is set, are: the building of a free and democratic society and just and egalitarian society. As a corollary, the language of immediate environment of the pupil shall be used for the first three years as medium of instruction to foster development of the individuals for their sake and for general development of the society. This is to ensure even development in both cultural interests of ethnic groups as well as of Nigeria in general (p. 120)

When there is a language loss, the custodians of the culture are seen as being neglected and this causes various rifts and riots we experience in our secondary schools in Lagos State.
At the heart of language loss is the desire as a young child to “fit in” with school friends. Too often languages loss is associated with other closely related features such as language attrition, semi-lingualism, language death and language change via learning. Actual language loss occurs when a minority group member cannot do the things with the minority language that they used to do. Some of the proficiency is no longer accessible Crawford (in Cantoni 1996) offers the following list of signs that a language is being lost.
i. The number of speakers is decreasing: this is very common in our secondary schools, in the sense that even though the students speak the Yoruba language, they do not speak the correct and efficient language. All they speak most times are just slang’s, petty language etc.
ii. Fluency in the language increases with age, as younger generations prefer to speak another (usually the dominant) language.  In the secondary schools, the dominant language is neither the Yoruba language nor the English language; it is the Yoru-English language. They are neither fluent in Yoruba nor the English language.
i. Language use declined in “domains” where it was once secure (for example, social gatherings, churches, ceremonies, cultural observations and especially, the home.
ii. Growing number of parents discouraging the use of their indigenous language and the promotion of the English language.
There are certain ways on the causes and cure of language loss.
1. Language shift is  difficult to impose from without / outside
2. Language shift is determined primarily by internal changes within the language communities themselves.
3. If language choices reflect a change in values, so to a much effort to reverse language shift.
4. Language shift cannot be reversed by outsiders.
5. Successful strategies for reversing language shift demand an understanding of the stage of the language shift.
Language Acquisition
 Children acquire language quickly, easily and without effort or formal teaching. It happens automatically, whether their parents try to teach them or not. Children acquire language through interaction. People wonder when a child learns to talk? There is no one point at which a child learns to talk. By the time the child first utters a single meaningful word, he or she has spent many months playing around with the sounds and intonations of language and connections words with meanings. (Fakoya, 2004).
According to Crystal (1998) language acquisition has long been thought of as a process of imitation and reinforcement. Children learn to speak, in the popular view, by copying the utterances heard around them, and by having their responses strengthened by the repetitions, corrections, and other reactions that adult provide.
The limitations of an imitation / reinforcement view of acquisition led in the 1960’s to an alternative proposal arising out of the generative account of language. It was argued that children must be born with an innate capacity for language development: the human brain is ready for language, in the sense that when children are exposed to speech, certain general principles for discovering or structuring language automatically begin to operate. These principles constitute a child’s language acquisition device’ (LAD).
The child uses its language acquisition device (LAD) to make sense of  the utterances heard around it, deriving  from this  ‘primary linguistics data’ hypotheses  about  the grammar of the language -  what  the sentences are, and how they are constructed. This knowledge is then used to produce a sentence that, after of process of trial and error, corresponds to those in adult speech.

Language Attrition
 According to Wikipedia (2008), language attrition is the loss of a language or a portion of a language by either a speech community or an individual. As much as cultural norms and governmental policies can preserve and even promote endangered and minority languages restrictions can lead to contraction and eventually extinction. When a country such as Nigeria feels that for the country to have economic utility and stability there is the need for a dominant language – a language of communication to the outside world and the only language that is encouraged is the English language, there is the high risk of language attrition.

According to UNESCO (1983), Languages are human kind’s principle tools for interacting and for expressing ideas, emotions, knowledge, memories and values. Languages are also primary vehicles of cultural expressions and intangible cultural heritage, essential to the identity of individuals and groups.
According to the Oxford Dictionary language is the word and the way of speaking, writing etc usually connected with a particular group of people.  A language of a person is the identity of that person. For a group of people, a language is a tool by which information that is   precise is transferred from one person to another through the use of communication.
Culture on the other hand, comes from the Latin word “cultura” stemming from ‘colere” meaning “to cultivate” the word “culture” is most used commonly in three basic sense i.e. excellence in taste, in the fine arts and humanities.
Another definition of culture according to the internet is an integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behaviour that depends upon the capacity for symbolic thought and social learning.  It is the set of shared attitudes, values, goals and practices that characterizes an institution, organization or group.

According to Devito (2000), cultures refers to the relatively specialized  lifestyle of a people consisting of  their values, beliefs, artifacts, ways of behaving  and  ways of communication.
Culture is transmitted from one generation to another through enculturation, the process by which you learn the culture into which you are born. Parents, peers, groups, schools, religious institutions and government agencies are the main teachers of culture.  The way a person communicates, is as a result of the person’s culture. Language is the keynote of culture.  Without language, culture does not exist. Language gives access to the social experience and accumulated knowledge of generations that have gone before, and projects into the future.  It is through language that we become cultured and thus fully human. It is the physics and chemistry of culture including the potential and kinetic energies in power terms.

Language and culture are in constant interaction. Culture influences the structures and use of language and in turn language can influence cultural interpretations of reality. Language is the communication tool of culture. It is the documentary confirmation of culture.
In the Yoruba language, Yoruba language is the core communication of Yoruba culture it is an asset over and above the colonially inherited English language. It helps the Yoruba group to speak into one’s vision, mission and programme in the Histo-philosophy of Omo Oduduwa.  (Aja Akpuru – Aja (2008).

Culture is a network of meaning embedded in symbols which people communicate, perpetuate and stretch their language concerning their attitude towards life. Through language, the people’s culture is known Goertz (1975).
Language is a cultural tool for the easy identification of a people and should be allowed to be learnt from birth to adulthood for the promotion of a people’s culture and tradition (Ogum, 2008). The English language in Nigeria is threatening other indigenous language because it is the official language of communication. He says:

               Virtually, every body in every circumstance tries to accommodate the use of English language and the indigenous languages are threatened in term of career opportunities. The English language is dangling like the sword of Damodes; because the better English you speak, the more you uphold your social economic status in the society. (p 15). 

Proffering solutions to the realization of the dream in studying our indigenous languages, he said there is the need to recognize the fact that teachers should be trained sufficiently to take care of the teaching of our children using well developed orthographies of the local language.
Fishman (1996) states that a language long associated with the culture is best able and most exactly, most richly with appropriate overtone relay the concerns, artifacts, values and interests of that people.

The Sapir – Whorf hypothesis (SWH) posits that a particular language nature influence the habitual thought of its speakers. That is different language patterns yield different patterns of thought.
Also the term cultural relation is a principle that an individual human’s beliefs and activities should be understood interims of his or her culture.
The language and culture of a people cannot be treated separately. It has to be understood adequately in order that the real issue which is how to use our indigenous language to preserve our cultural values would be understood adequately

According to Olajide  and Gbadesere (1992) it was emphasized that teaches  should adequately motivate their students to generate the desired willingness to learn in them. No doubt, adequate motivation makes the student poised at the beginning of the lesson and sustain their interest during the lesson even to the end of the lesson.

The teachers enthusiasm and spiritedness should create conclusive environment to make student wholly involved in the learning acitivity and to set realistic goals for themselves.
Consequently, effective motivation plays a significant role in the teaching – learning process. In the sense that it leads to the development of personal interest in learning and appreciation of education, a zeal for acquisition of knowledge and desire for personal development. Thus, motivation helps in the realization of personal  goals thereby helping to sustain the future.

The teacher  should therefore make their students see the need for their aspiration. Once students appreciate this, they will readily cooperate  and put in sincere efforts to benefit from the learning. In motivating student to learn in the classroom teachers should be guided by the fact  that external stimuli which individuals identify as relevant to their personal  needs, survival ambition and progress will further stimulate them to learn better and faster.

Motivation, as relevant as it is to the teaching / learning situation, should be in moderation, it should not be too much as overdose of motivation in the classroom maybe  cause of over anxiety for students  thus leaving them confused and disorganized,  also it should not be under – dose, as this might not be strong enough to fall the students to action  (learn). In the efforts to improve students cognition and affective outcomes in mathematics and  / or school learning, educational psychologists and mathematics educators, have continued  to search for variables (personal and environmental) that could be  manipulated in favour of academic gains. Of al the personal and psychological variables that have attracted researchers in this area of education achievement, motivation seems to be gaining more popularity and leading other variables (Tella, 2003).

To enhance self-esteem  of learners, which will in turn improve attribute of such pupils, it si recommended that varying activities (game activities), which has been designed to contain mathematic problems ranging from easy to very difficult, should be used. At least each pupils  no matter their ability level should be able to answer some questions correctly.
This would go a long way to motivate such pupils towards further  learning. When an activity is designed with its central feature being an admired situation, experience or individual, it would go a long way in motivating pupils to learn. For example, in teaching addition at the  primary school level, you could centre learning activities around food like snacks (for example I got two sweets from mummy and four from daddy, how many sweets do I have and so on).
It could as well be centred on a pleasurable experience (like going to see father Christmas) or around an admired person e.g. a most like character on the television. All these suggestion would help to motivate learners towards learning.

Achievement motivation  
 How do people differ in their motivation to achieve? In a classic study to asses the differences in  strengths of people’s achievement motives, Mcclelland and Colleague in Aire and  Tella (2003) developed a projection technique using selected picture cards fromteh Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). The technique assumes that when asked to write stories about the  pictures, respondents will project their feelings about themselves  on to the characters in the picture. Subjects who refer to achievements goals are often rated high in achievement  motivation, those who  rarely or never refer to achievement goal are rated low.
Achievement motivation is often  correlated with actual achievement behavior (Camara, 196). The motivation to achieve,  however may evidence itself only in behavior that  children value. For example a child may be highly motivated to achieve and this may be exhibited in athletics but not in school work. Thus different situations have different achievement attaining values for children. Eccles, et al 1998, Harter and Connel, 1984.
   
Achievement motivation child expectation and attribution 
 Individuals actual achievement behavior depends not only on their motivation   to achieve but also on whether they expect to achive and whether they fear failure. People are more likely to work hard when t hey perceieved  a reasonable chance to succeed than when they perceive a goal to be out of reach ( Atkinson, 1964) children’s expectation of success can be measure by asking them to predict a certain grade indicate how sure they are that they can solve a particular problem, and select the hardest task they think they can do from a collection of tasks varying by degree of difficulty (Philip, 1987). Children with high expectation for success on a task usually persist at it longer and perform better than children with low expectation Eccles, 1983, Eccles etal (1`998). Researchers like (Carr etal 1991) have found that children with high  I.Q’s and high expectation of success in school do, infact get the highest grade. Children with high  / IQs and children with low IQs and low expectation  receive lower grades than children with low IQs and high expectation. In addition  to child  rearing practices, reviewed previously  teaching styles and communication pattern affect children’s attributions. When teachers are caring and supportibe and emphasis the teaching / learning  process over the performance outcomers and when they give feed back children tend to be motivated to achieve  and to expect success. Daniel, Kalkman, and McCombs, 2001). Intelligence is not  the only determinant of academic achievement. High motivation and engagement in learning have consistently been linked to reduce dropout rates and increased levels of students success (Kushman, Sieber, and Harol, 2002). Development  of academic intrinsic motivation in student is an important goal for educators because of its inherent importance for future motivation as well as for students effective school function   (Gottfried, 1990). The few studies that have examined motivation in young children have found that it is a predicator of achievement  Stipek and Ryan, 1997). The family is the primary  social system for children. Rollins and Thomas (1979) found that high parental control were associated with high achievement.

Cassidy and Lynn (1991) included a specific factor of the family socio-economic status, crowding, as an indicator of how being disadvantage affects educational attainment. They found that a less physically crowded environment, along with motivation and parental support, were associated with higher educational levels of children.
Religiousity as an aspect of the  family environment is another independent variable possible influencing academic achievement (Bvahr Hawks and Wang, 1993). Cassidy and Lynn (1991) explored how family environment impacts motivation and achievement. This means that motivation  served as a mediating variable between home background, personal characteristics and educational attainment.
Higher – achieving students are likely to have the following characteristics.
- Positive feeling about their school experience
- Attribute their success in school to such things as hard work
- Self discipline
- Organization
- Ability and
- High motivation,  tend to watch relatively  little television during the school wee.
- Tend to associate with students who also were successful in school and avoid readers (WAEC, 2005) student motivation for learning is generally regarded as on e of the most critical determinants, if not the premier determinant of the success and quality of any learning outcome (Mitchell, 1992).
Examining the construct  of intrinsic motivation in elementary school students is significant and important, bucase academic intrinsic motivation in the elementary years nay have  profound implications initial and future school success. Students who are more intrinsically than extrinsically motivated fare better than students who are not motivated to engage in learning are unlikely to succeed (Gottfried, 1990).

Academic  achievement is accomplished by the actual execution of class work in the school setting . it is typically assessed by the use  of teacher’s ratings, tests and  examinations (HOWSE, 1999) research shows that student perceptions of academic competency decline as they advance in school (Eccles, Wigfield, and Schiefele, (1998). Schun and Pajares (2002) attributed this decline to various factors ,  including  
• Greater completion
• Less  teacher attention to individual students progress
• Stresses associated with school transition
Students were motivated by teachers who cared about student learning and showed enthiasm. These teachers introduced  topics in an interesting and challenging way, used varied teaching strategies, and promoted student involvement by allowing participation in the selection of learning activities  (Cothron and Ennis, 2000). Gottfried found positive, correlations between motivation and achievement. Specifically, young students with higher academic intrinsic motivation has significantly higher achievement and intellectual performance. She also found that early intrinsic motivation correlate with later motivation is predictable from early achievement (Gottfried, 1990) It was also found that perceived academic competence was  positively related to intrinsic motivation.
It seems that students who  feel competent  and self – determined in the school context develop on autonomous motivational  profile toward education, which in turn leads them to obtain higher school grades.

Perceived academic  competence and perceived academic self – determination positively  influence autonomous academic  motivaton, which in turn had a positive impact on school performance (Fortier, Vallerand, & Guay, 1995) . some studies have found little  or no significant relationship between motivatrion and academic achievement. A study by Niebhr (19950  examined relationship between several variables  and student academic achievement. The study included an investigation of the relationship of individual motivation and it effect on academic  achievement. Niebunhr’s (1995), findings sugest that the element of both school climate and  family environment have a stronger direct on academic achievement. Another  study by Boggiano, Main, and Katz (1991) regarding differences in gender in motivation, found that females were significantly more extrinsic than males. Male student performance accords their interest level more  than is case for female students.   Specifically, female students academic performance is less associated with their interests than male students academic performance (Schiefele, Krapp & Winteler, (1992).

According to  Hammer (2003)  the home environment is as important as what goes on in the school. Important factors include parental involvement in the children ‘s education, how much  parents read to young children, how much TV children are allowed to watch and how oft en students change  schools. Achievemtn gap is not only about what goes on once students get into the class room . its also about what   happens to them before and after school  parents and teachers have a  crucial role to play to make sure that every child becomes  a high achiever, parental influence has been identified  as an important factor affecting student achievement. Results indicate that parent education and encouragement are strongly related to improve student achievement  (Wang, Wildman, & Calhoun, 1996).

Philips (1998), also found that parental education and social economic status have an impact on student achievement, students with parent who were  both university – educated tended to achieve at the highest levels.
Income and family size were  modestly related to achievement (Ferguson, 1991). Peng  and Wrights  (1994). Analysis of academic achievement, home environment   (including  family income ) and educational activities  explained the greatest amount of variance .
Allen and Kickbusch (1992)o cited in WAEC, 2005, found that the highere – achieving students plan to continue their education after graduation from primary school, participant extensively in extracurricular activities, have a few absences each school year, more likely to engage in recreational  reading and to check books out of  the school or public library on a regular basis, watch less television, spend more time each evening  doing  their home work,  have friends who have positive attitudes toward school and who  rarely  cut classes or skip school, have positive feelings  about their teachers and about specific courses they take and attribute success in school to hard work rather than ability.

Every teacher daily faces a number of behavioural problems. For the explanation of these problems. Such a teacher needs  to turn to psychology of motivation.
This is a great problem for teachers, parents and administration and for those who are interested in the improvement of  performance and learning of people for action.
Students/ pupils in the classroom learning requires constant motivation from the teacher so that maximum use of their talents maybe made for their welfare and also for the welfare and progress of the society.

Through the process of  motivation is highly individualized activity in the sense that causes underlying behaviors are always multiple and complex rather  than single and simple.
According to Chauhan (2002) a learner maybe motivated for an action in a particular situation and the other learner may not be motivated in that situation and even the same learner may not be motivated under the same situation on some different  occasions.
A number of variable / factors operate in the process of motivation which cause variation in the individuals. Among such variable is the socio-economic condition of the learners, previous experience, age interest and social climate in the classroom etc all these affects the process of motivation in the classroom.
However, strategically, the steps outlined by a teacher to bring about meaningful leaning maybe minimal in the absence of adequate motivation since the essence of  teaching includes economy of time, energy  and resources, the teacher can use one nor more combination of some common techniques developed  by psychologists to motivate the children in their work. The teacher should make use of various approaches in his teaching keeping into consideration the individual differences among the student.

The following are some of  the important motivation strategies in the classroom teaching learning situation.
i. use the principle of pleasure and pain: the oldest theory of behavior holds  that pleasant experiences which give satisfaction, tough and painful experience are  avoided by the organism. This theory has direct implication in classroom teaching and learning, in the sense that teachers must provide and  satisfying experiences to  his / her student such type of experience will motivate students for further learning.
ii. _ use  of rewards and punishment: the teacher must occasionally adminster reward and punishment in his / her classroom teaching. Rewards create interest in the pupils or students. They are motivated to get the reward Olajide and Gbadesere (1992), emphasized that reward is expected to serve as a bait that will lure  the pupils / student to learn. As  a result, objects or materials to be used as rewards to motivate student must have value to them . We should consider the age and level of the students we are dealing with, when deciding on rewards. The reward should not be the centre of attraction as to  generate such anxiety that will make them learn badly.
To this end it was opined, that teachers should therefore, be tactful in the use and choice of  r eward. The use of pencil, pens, exercise book, rulers etc occasionally is good but should not be a routine  because students may become reluctant to participate fully in class activities when teachers do not produce or mention these objects.  Similarly, the teacher must use punishment very sparingly because punishment crates behavuior troubles. Thus in order to avoid this, the teaher mut mind the two  in such a way  that it will enginer the student  to learn  especially independent learning beyond the classroom situation (Chauhan, 2002).
iii. Aspiration  level: it implies the level of performance to which one spirec  for future. The teacher must see that the activity of the class is tailored in accordance with the aspiration level of the students.
According to Okoli, level of aspiration depends on several  factor like intelligence, socio-economic status, parental relation and  expectation from children. The teacher should organize activity in such a way that student should keep striving and give a promise of goal attainment. Classroom goals should be attainable and the students should feel that they are able to achieve them.
School work must be sufficiently varied and faced so that every student / pupils may succeed at his /  her level. The students should be encouraged to participate in learning activity in the class. The student active participation is very essential to arouse their interest in learning.
iv. - Use of Praise and Blame: it is human nature that every one wants some praise for achievement because of their limited abilities  but others will be motivated by praise for most worthy accomplishment related to their high ability.
Praise and blame are most effective especially when they come from person held in esteem by the students, some psychological studies reveal that praise usually have more positive effect on interior children while it has less effect on those of superior intelligence where as reprove or blame is felt most by superior children (Olajide  and Gbadesere, 1992) other studies indicates that regardless of age, level, sex or initial  ability, praise is the  most effective of the incentives tested.
Teacher, smiles, a good look, words of encouragement / acknowledgement and verbal praise etc motivate students to improve their   efforts blame in it subtle from be used  but should not be used to express personal bitterness or hatred for a student.
Abusive language and use of bodily deformities to spite a child should never come up. To this end, blame should be sparingly used because it creates personality mal-adjustment. However, it need to be pointed out that successful use of praise and blame depends  upon the students, their personality and prior learning experience/
v. -use of competition and co-operation: teachers should stress friendly relation rather than rivalry that breeds interpersonal antagonism among students, thus , competition should involve  a degree of quality among contestants (Chauhan, 2002).
Competition maybe of three types :
a. interpersonal competition among peers
b. Group competition.
c. Competition with oneself.
The teacher can use all the three types of competition in his teaching in the classroom like competition, cooperation is also a strong incentive for motivating children. Student, should be  encouraged to work as a team in solving problems while at the same time encouraging  individual efforts of group members..
Each group should be made up of student with varying abilities so that  the better members can cooperate and assist the weaker ones. Competition and cooperation both can be used in the classroom learning  for gaining high scores. The teacher should  encourage active participation of all the students  in  learning activities.
VI- Knowledge of the Result (Feedback): the teacher in the teaching  / learning  situation should always provide proper feedback to the student to motivate them in learnig.
To this end, students should be given an  up date  report on their previous efforts  from time to time, as this will boost the performance of the students especially if it’s a positive  result and if otherwise, it encourages the students to put in more efforts.
Feedback therefore, elates the students and  give them a feeling of accomplishment which stimulates more desire to improve on their effort. It should however be noted that in his / her teaching, the teacher should provide opportunities to succeed for this students because frequent failure and it displays can discourage students thus leading to frustration. This means work should be definite in aim within the ability  and interest area of the student, difficult enough to challenge but not to  frustrate performance and improvement maybe presented in form of graphs or progress is always available, it should  also be accompanied by suggestions in specific  areas that needs more attention from the students. The students will be motivated to keep up and improve on their standard when they see their progress report.
vii. Novelty in teaching every novel things are in the individual, teacher most introduce novelty into their teaching. Novelty has merit when teachers points out the relation between the new and already known, uses familiar procedures and himself show enthusiasm or the expansion of knowledge into areas.
The teacher should present subject –matter in a variety of ways to bring novelty in his / her teaching. To this end, the teachers should present their teaching activities in unique ways. Although this, sometime tasks teacher’s ingenuity to the limit, the curiosity and interest  of student is heightened and makes them to be happy when learning (Olajide and Gbadesere, 1992) the impression made by the novel setting also make retention  to be longer and forgetting to be minimal.
viii. Removal of distracters: during teaching, these issues that call off the attention of the students from the learning activity be removed.  These attractions which are incompatible with the present activity prevent students from concentrating thereby making them miss the details of learning.
By this, not much will be achieved by the teacher, so the teacher has to make it a point of duty to provide object that will have more appeal are arrest the attention of the students so as to disregard any outside distracters,  consequently, distracters that impose themselves on students such as a sudden loud  noise expulsions claims and continuous rumbling noise of engines or steel should be far away from school locations.
ix. Setting of Goals: motivation is a goal oriented  behavior that leads to drive reduction in the organism (Chauhan, 2002). Thus, the  goal which students sets for himself plays an important role.
A student who has a worthwhile goal, than he is willing to forge immediate  pleasure and even expose himself to some suffering if his efforts bring him closer to his goal. Goal  setting is an important component of human maturation, therefore,  teachers should set goals for individuals and the class which are attainable.
x. Avoid the use of stress procedures: it is obvious that some amount of mild, anxiety accelerates the problem solving efforts of the student but too much anxiety and tension disorganizes the cognitive process and hinders the performance of the learners.
The teacher should therefore  create mild tension in  his students to motivate them (Chauhan, 2002).
xi. provide  Real lyre and symbolic models  it is a fact that most of the learning in human beings is acquired through the process of observation and limitation.
The teacher can influence the behavior of his students by his attitude and ideal living within or verbal presentation and by the use of audio-visual  technique. By observing  the  real situation students are motivated.
xii. Create needs to learn and involve students: The teacher must create psychological and social need for learning in his students the importance of classroom learning should be related to future life of the students. To this end, the teacher should make the students to be actively involved in learning task, as a strategy for motivations them in the teaching / learning  process.
xiii. Appropriate method of teaching:  teacher’s method of teaching should be appropriate and relevant to the age, level nature of subject and maturation of students observed Olajide and Gbadesere (1992). It was therefore, opined that teachers should make students see  the relationship between their school work and real life situation, thus seeing the relevance of  their learning to their everyday life and future  successive will make them show more interest in learning.
Also, the use of practical activities for improving skills relevant to their live for school work.
Basically, there are many other techniques which have been successfully used in other countries. The important techniques are team teaching, use of discussion method developmental task, success and failure and programmed text.

In spite of all the techniques referred to above, the place of the teacher in motivating his / her students remains supreme, his method of teaching, warmth and his technique of handling classroom  problem plays an important role in the process of motivation in the classroom teaching. However, it needs  to be pointed out that  the teacher in his attempt at maturating his students  should not adhere to a particular technique, but adopt series of them in order to effectively attain his goal in the classroom teaching.

It is very important to examine the various theories or motivation as propounded by psychologists in explaining human behviour after our last topic. To this end, the following psychological view -  point on the development and processes of motivation shall  be examined as put forward by OLajie and Gbadesere (1992), they include;
- Hedonistic Theory of Motivation
- Hullin theory of motivation
- Freud’s theory of motivation
- Adlor’a theory of motivation
- Homeostatic theory of motivation
- Cognitive theory of motivation
- Need theory o motivation
Hedonistic Theory of Motivation 
 This theory of motivation explain s the fact that human behavior  has to do with avoidance of pain implies that we ae motivated to  increase participating in please giving activities and motivated to stop or avoid pain giving experience. It is a fact that nobody want to experience painful circumstance, but at times the situation  warrant such circumstances. The notion is however not always true because some people have known to go for experience that give them pain for personal reasons or to demonstrate self control. For instance, people have  tolerated the pangs of hunger during fasting and even death as in myth for religious or political reasons. Also a student may skip his meals to complete his assignment or swallow some bitter medicaments to aid the relief of ailment. The implication  of this theory of motivation is not far-fetched.

Although, people in as much as possible tries to avoid painful circumstance but  however, the case maybe some  people still induces / allows painful circumstance. However the hedonistic theory of motivation thus put it forward that individuals should increase  motivation  on activities they gain pleasure from and motivated to avoid painful experience.
 Hullian Theory of motivation
 When an `individual is in a state  of need, a specific behavour is generated that will lead to a reduction  of the need. The propounder of this theory, Hill (1943), emphasized that determinants of motivation are more of physical variables than any other factor.
He also argued  that motivational behavior are closely associated with the survival instinct  of the individual.
Apart from this instinctual or innate behviour some survival behavior are also learned which enable the individual to cope with the hazards of his environment.
The implication therefore, is that the ways of expatiating motivational drive also have some habit from dimensions on individuals.
To this end, Hull (1943), therefore observed that human beings are impelled towards the  exhibition of either an in born or a learned behavior that reduces the force of drive.
He therefore concluded that even then, acquired an inborn behavior cannot account for all forms  of human motivation as the environment also plays an important part.

Freud’s theory of motivation 
 Sigmud Freud observed that some basic instinct drive us to seek immediate gratificaction,  in other words, some of our instincts elicit  some specific behavioural patterns from us. His pleasure giving principle shows that the withdrawal of a convenience, motivates people to exhibit some specific behaviour that will lead to the restoration of the inconvenience.
The idea is that we are born with some basic instincts which always need immediate gratification so that we can survive. He also emphasized the role of erratic and libidinous desires in determining motivation at different stages of human development.   He identified the oral stage and the phallic stage n children.
Consequently, from the motivational point of view, the need to satisfy our biological urge heightens the libinous energy which becomes a motivational drive in the individual.
Hence, by this the individual is motivated to express the specific behaiour that will bring relief.

Homeostatic theory of motivation
This theory explains the fact that maturation as a function of compensatory behavioural adjustment rooted in homeostasis, that is, a reactive mechanism by which a disequilibrated organism regain its complacency. Similarly, this theory attempts to explain how motivation occurs by trying to trace it to a behavior that  will counter the cause of disequilibrium. It should be noted  that the state of disequilibrium. It should be noted that the state of disequilibrium  is discomforting and inconveniencing. Hence, the organic engages in an adjustment behavoiur  geared towards compensating for this deprivation, these adjustment behaviors meant to reinstate equilibrium is what constitute homeostatic, which forms the force that sets motivation in motion.

Cognitive theory of motivation
Motivation is produced by the cognitive process associated with perceiving, thinking, evaluating and making rational decisions.
The process of thinking lead to certain behavior due to motivational drive resulting from the cognitive process.  For instance, a person’s  thought or expectations are one in dissonance with the society’s rule and regulations, the resulting conflicts will lead to a psychological incongruent, leading to a motivatoal behavior that will restore cognitive consonance. Also, it should be noted that  a single goal may have different attractive effect on different people due to their perceptual view point. If an individual  attaches much importance to a goal or an incentive, the arousal value will be high and  its motivational effect will be significant.
Carrot and stick hypotheses
This hypothesis according to Olajide and Gbadesere (1992) asserts that the main  incentive for working is financial gratification and reward.
It argues that a horse can be motivated to work either by dangling the carrot before him or beating him with a stick if it refuses  to work,. This  explains why financial gratification has a powerful effect on the level of productivity of workers and why the possibility of suspension or terminatin of appointment keeps some people from lazy to work and are thud maturated to hard work.

NEED THEORY OF MOTIVATION  
 In this theory, Abraham Maslow argues that a deficit situation leads eventually to an inner drive geared towards making up for the deficit through self – actualization growth of the individual in the process of creative development.
Maslow (1943), maintained that this creative development process  play a great role than the deficit aspect. This is because motivational behavour associated with individuals effort to improve on his achievement has nothing to do with the individual perception of  his lack. These efforts at improving an achievement is designed to achieve self – fulfillment.
In fulfilling oneself, the individual experiences vaous hierarchies of need that must be satisfied in order to achieve self  actualization.
Biehlor (1981) noted that Maslow identified these needs are physiological or biological needs, need for safety and security, need for affection, love and belongingness, esteem,  needs, need for self actualization, desire to  know and understand and aesthetic needs.
It should be noted that these need are arranged in hierarchical order. The  physiological or biological needs which  is the most primary, h as to be satisfied before the next higher needs can get adequate attention and so on up the hierarchy.

Psychologists have analysed the maturated behavior of an organism and observed the following characteristic  attributes of such type  of behavior.
1.Motivation energizes and sustains behavior it energizes the behavior of the organism and arouse for action.
According to Chauhan (2002), the energy can be physiological as it drive and reintegrates resonator activity aroused by similarity between present action and resides of past ones that were emotionally significant for the person.
The energy is supplied in proportion to the amount of energy output for a task. Motivation not only energizes the behavior but it sustains our interest and behavior for longer period in the activity. According to Okoli (2000), efficiency and adequacy are increased in a motivated state of behavior.
2.Motivation directs and regulates our behavior, motivated state as often descried as guided, directed and goal – oriented. Osorenren, 2000), they motivated behavior moves in a specific direction.  The behavior of the organism is purposeful and persisted. The direction of motivational behavior is no doubt very complex because of the structure of the present situation  and the action services which determine the behavior.
3.Behavior is selective – under motivated condition, the behavior of the organism does not move in haphazard way. It is directed toward a selective goal which the individual sets for himself. For instance, the student who is motivated to secure high grades in the examination, concentrates on his studies by selecting appreciate means to reach his goal. The motive is terminated by the achievement of goal, (Chauhan, 2002).

Types of Motivation    
According to Olajide and Gbadesere (1992) motivation can be classified according to the source from which it originated. For instance, if an individual becomes motivated from a source within him, it is intrinsic motivation, but if the source of motivation is an external influence, it is termed extrinsic motivation.

Intrinsic Motivation
This type of motivation  occurs when an individuals participation in an activity is as a result of self conviction, in the course, the urge to continue, the readiness and willingness to persist even when the task becomes very difficult and challenging remain  high. Basically, because of the fact that this types of motivation arises as a result of a source within an individual, such individual experience satisfaction and a sense of accomplishment, thus participation carried it own reward for such individual. Some of the factors that livens up intrinsic motivation according to OLajide and Gbadesere (1992) includes curiosity, emotional urge, desire to learn, mental stimulation, inquisitiveness and ambition.
If for instance, a student realizes the relevance of credit pass in a school subject to his future ambition, such student would hardly need an external pressure to spur his study. The  motivation to excel is therefore stronger and more effective unlike a situation where he has to be forced to pick his books against his wish.
The implication of this is that an individual who does not see reason to go to school to work hard in a particular school subject or even as outright lackluster for an activity is to be encourage to change his  attitude and develop interest in his work which bring us to the second types of motivation.

Extrinsic Motivation
 This is the motivational effect of external factors  to elicit desirable behavour in an individual because at times lack of intellectual maturity or lack of sensitivity may stand in the way of intrinsic appeals and the individual may not  readily respond favourably to the  task at hand. The implication of this is that the individual would otherwise not take part in the activity but for the presence of the external stimulus which should have a striving effect as well as a source of spontaneous attention for the individual. Thus the extrinsic motivator is a sort of bad to entire or lure the individual into action.
It includes the use of praises, reward, punishment, blame, presence of interesting apparatus, stimulating. Curiosity, competition and  feed back on progress of activity Chauchan (2002).
It should be noted however that those motivations should  not be used indiscriminately  or haphazardly, but should be based on the nature of the individual needs or the age and level of student teacher is dealing with.